Cataclysms of the Earth
By Hugh Auchincloss Brown
 

PART THREE

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH’S MATERIALS

 

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As the autumn leaves fell at the end of a five week rainless period, the edges of the pavements of the streets of suburban New York City held layers of thoroughly dried out, brittle leaves that crumbled to a fine yellow powder of desiccated vegetation, a light rain then washed the finely granulated materials into the gutters, where they changed into mud. I took pains to terminate it and found that it was no longer a yellow powder, but had become a dark, slimy mud. When the mud dried out, it became dirt. Dirt becomes bargain, and hardpan becomes rack.

Layers of black, wet mud, exposed at low tides along the shores of Long Island Sound, consist mainly of organic matter that once floated in the waters and then sank to the bottom. On the other side of New York City, the large area of the Hackensack Meadows is made up of dark brown, compact mud, consisting mainly of disintegrated vegetable matter that during the past 7," years first floated and then sank m the waters, changing e shallow estuary, tidewater lake into meadow lands

Burnouts inform us that all vegetation consists of one percent mineral matter which is left behind, like ashes from a fire, when the vegetation dies, its other ingredients change into water vapor and carbon dioxide gas and escape into the atmos. plower. This gives n elementary, picture of how minerals develop on the earth and why the earth has been constantly growing larger during approximately four and a half billion year

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Physicists inform us that matter consists of molecules that are composed of atoms in constant vibration, each atom being made up of a nucleus charged with positive electricity and surrounded by negatively charged electrons in circular motion. A piece of steel is composed of submicroscopic elements in constant motion and these expand when heated because the atoms then move faster and take up more room.

Spectroscope operators show us that each of the 92 basic chemical elements, every material of the earth, can be identified by the wave lengths of its light rays when made incandescent or is burned, at which moment the materials change into gases and light rays. The spectroscope intercepts the light rays as they return to space from which they originally came, and identifies the material by the wave lengths of its light rays.

The chemical elements of the materials in rocks which were once leaves and vegetation, can be identified by the light rays that created them; we thus assume that they all came from celestial space in the form of light rays, and that the atoms of the light rays became frozen or occluded and changed into the atoms in the materials of the earth. The process is called photosynthesis the synthesis of chemical compounds effected with the aid of radiant energy, especially light, and specifically, the formation of carbohydrates in the chlorophyl containing tissues of plants exposed to light.

Coal is a mineral rock that was once vegetable matter and is found sporadically in all parts of the world, at different depths in successively created strata of the earth. The minerals silica and calcium are now found associated with former vegetation in the form of petrified trees and granitic rocks. Silica sands and calcium limestones are created in the oceans. The association of these minerals can be explained as being one result of the recurrent great cataclysms of the earth; these occurred when polar areas, overburdened by ice, rolled to the tropics and tropical areas were moved to the poles, and, they marked the end of that particular epoch of time.

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Research appears to confirm that the sun, stars, planets and meteorites, comprising the entire universe, are composed of the same ingredients and that these ingredients sometimes appear as energy and sometimes as matter. Energy and matter have been proven to be mutually convertible. We have abundant evidence that energy from celestial space changes into matter. The coal beds which are now underground organic rock layers are one example. What is now rock was once energy which was transmuted into vegetation and then metamorphosed from vegetation to rock. Petrified wood, leaves, figs, and animal bones have gone through a similar process, having first been created on the surface of the earth, and then been metamorphosed to mineral rock while buried underground.

Television, radio, and electronics give us clues to certain processes of creation. In television we have an artificial transmitter of electrical oscillations and a receiver for utilizing them. Certain forces of nature are harnessed and utilized, by the intelligence of man, to produce pictures on a screen at great distances from the sources of their creation. The oscillations are broadcast, like the radiations from the sun.

A blade of grass grows in a field because an intelligence, far superior to man’s intelligence, has caused the creation of radiant energy which creates blades of grass, at great distances from the energy sources.

Neither the light rays nor the radio waves are visible; but they are just as real as the blades of grass and the television pictures which we see and which are the result of the invisible energy radiations. These energy radiations created them and caused them to become visible to our eyes, whenever captured by the receptive medium.

Consider now the enormous volume of energy being radiated by the uncountable number of stars in celestial space, all of which radiate energy just as our sun throws off energy radiations. This energy arrives at the surface of the earth in a continuous shower. Earth bound electrical or ethereal images convert certain of these invisible forces into materials, by photosynthesis, under suitable conditions of temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, and a suitable electrical condition of the atmosphere.

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Nature creates blades of grass in a field. Man creates television pictures on a screen. Both the blades of grass and the television pictures indicate to us the existence of creative intelligence. The original forces of nature were in existence a very long time before men learned to utilize them in order to produce television pictures on a screen. The creation of the television pictures provides us with an analogy of the invisible forces which create the blades of grass; but the methods used are quite different.

The 92 basic chemical elements of the earth (now sometimes listed as 102) are identified by the lengths of the light rays into which they metamorphose on being made incandescent. These chemical elements arrive on the earth as energy rays and return again to celestial space as energy rays.

Based on the latest findings of physical and cosmic science it seems reasonable to postulate that everything in and on the earth, excepting its core, has been created within the past 4% billion years including land, oceans, and atmosphere. These three entities are each composed of some or all of the 92 basic chemical elements, whose essences all become individual light and heat radiations and return to celestial space at temperatures above incandescence in the case of minerals and metals, and at hydrogen bomb temperatures in the case of certain gases.

Consider the topsoil of the United States some 50,000 years from now, when it may be metamorphosed into solid rock and buried, say, 100 to 400 feet below the surface of the earth. Thick rock would mark the bottoms of present valleys and river deltas. Thin rock would mark the areas of some of our highlands, while the bottoms of swamp lands, such as the Everglades and Dismal Swamps, would have become peat or coal.


I  -  Elements of Continuous Creation

WE WILL REVIEW briefly what is known and suggested concerning the growth of vegetation and layers of inorganic materials.

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The germs of vegetable growth are the male and female life forces which develop in stamen and pistil respectively, and when joined together in an environment suited to the species, create zygotes. These, in turn, create cells or minuscule bodies, and plants grow by cell division at upper terminal of stem and lower ends of roots. The individual cell, once formed, does not move upward. The cells created by the zygotes consist of atoms, which makes it reasonable to suggest that the zygotes create the molecules and that they have the function of attracting and binding electrical ions of the air with photons from celestial space. The photons are corpuscles of light, mainly from the sun. The ions are absorbed from currents that flow from stem to root and are caused by the difference in electrical potential between air and ground. The omnipresent ions create the voltage gradient of the ambient air, and moist earth creates the necessary conducting electrical contact between root and soil.

The zygote cells have the unique property of subdividing; then, as each subdivision grows to the size of the original cell it again subdivides, and this process continues indefinitely but only within limiting temperatures. The zygotes of each succeeding cell are the life forces of vegetation. The ions, which are captured or occluded when flowing through the live parts of the plant, are postulated to become the protons and neutrons of atoms, whose whirling electrons are the captured corpuscles of light. These known ingredients of air and sunlight account for the continuous creation of the atoms by metamorphosis. The end use of most of the tremendous quantity of energy from celestial space, which is being rained continuously upon the surface of the earth, is thus accounted for, and the equivalence of energy and matter is confirmed.

The primary forces of nature are identified as radiant energy acting on electrical entities which gather and hold matter. The prime creations become identified as meristomatic cells, auxines, enzymes, and growth hormones, as observed in plants. Each develops along an astral or ghostlike pattern, which manifests its presence visibly when clothed with the materials which it holds together, as presently described for the snowflake. Every atom of each material of the earth is an electrical entity of earthbound energy, which has been occluded, captured, or frozen in its transient material form.

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The metamorphosis from radiant energy to matter is being observed constantly where microscopes reveal the growths of the cell structures of plant and animal life, and electrical instruments reveal the concurrent voltages of the cells; the source of their growths is thus identified as being an unseen all pervading energy supply.

Chlorophyl is the medium in which electromagnetic forces of photosynthesis convert the photons and quanta of light rays, by a form of metamorphosis, into atoms of the earth. Atoms unite to form molecules, which are grouped along the astral patterns or ghosts of the creating zygotes, and nowhere else. By analogy the astral pattern is somewhat like an invisible but necessary molecular hatrack, whose form varies with the species. The building materials include the invisible life forces, light corpuscles and ions, and the visible materials which are carbohydrates plus some inorganic materials. All vegetation has an average content of approximately C⁶H¹²0¹ with about one percent of minerals.

When vegetation dies, the carbohydrates are consumed by slow combustion (rotting) and are metamorphosed into carbon dioxide gas and water vapor. The C0² is re used in creating new vegetation. The H²O condenses as rain and adds to the volume of the oceans, as explained presently. The minerals are left behind as a residue or ash and are found throughout the successive earth strata in which they were created.

Mineral matter, found in all vegetation, consists of calcium, iron, copper, and other inorganic materials. Calcium is being created continuously in vegetation and appears in the limestone strata of the earth. Sandstone is created by sand crystals of silica, which is a direct fixation of photosynthesis, occurring only in shallow seas and never at depths below which the sun’s rays penetrate. The formations of crystals in the air, snowflakes, is an analogy. Each of these citations will be presently explained in further detail. Granitic rocks and petrified trees are developed underground by silica and calcium carbonate, which crystallize with the buried vegetation to form petrified forest floors and trees, after having been picked up and carried in tenuous solutions of rain water percolating through the overlaid strata. A part of the vegetation, buried by the cataclysm that ended one epoch, is returned to the surface, in the form of rock, by one of the succeeding convulsions of the earth.

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The snowflake is an example of electrical forces promoting the binding together of materials. The ions of the air are recognized as the cause of the voltage gradient of the ambient atmosphere, as outlined later in the chapter "Volcanoes and Hot Springs." They hold together the water in raindrops. The condensation of water vapor in dust free air is demonstrated by the Wilson cloud chamber.

All snowflakes which fall to the earth are electrically alive until the voltages of the ions are neutralized by becoming grounded on the earth’s surface. Microscopic water particles have become electrically charged by the ions of the air, causing them to have north and south poles. The south and north poles attract each other. The south pole of a microscopic moisture particle then freezes fast to the north pole of an adjacent particle, and they become visible when enough of them have collected on the ion. The beautiful astral pattern, or ghost, of the ion then becomes visible because the moisture particles are ionized and gathered only along the straight lines of this astral pattern, now clothing itself with frozen moisture and becoming a snowflake. The snowflake is a mineral crystal which, like all other elements of the earth, exists only within a given temperature range. Water is one of the minerals of the earth.

The identity of the ions of the air with snowflakes have been proven true by reports of St. Elmo’s fire leaving the wing tips of planes as well as propeller blades when airplanes fly through snowstorms. The ions arrive on the planes as snowflakes and their flow off as St. Elmo ’s fire confirms their being electrically charged. Due to the excess of static, radios of airplanes become useless during snowstorms. The static is created by the Hertzian waves being generated as the ions of the snowflakes become grounded on the bodies of the airplanes.

Atoms, when grouped as molecules and occluded or frozen as matter, make up the chemical elements of the earth’s materials. The are identified by their wave lengths on spectrograph charts, as previously explained. All of the earth’s materials are transient, occluded, earth bound forms of the stellar radiations which fill all space. Energy radiations, atoms and ions, are the same thing in different manifestations. The growth of the earth and its stratified construction are accounted for by this new cosmic, geophysical theory of continuous creation, caused by electrodynamic interactions of radiant energy from celestial space and earth bound energy forms.

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This explanation identifies the earth’s materials with the rest of the universe, all being the same essence in different natural manifestations. It explains how each of the successive strata of the earth represents, generally, the accumulated growths of vegetable, mineral, and animal matter, created during each one of the epochs of time punctuated by the successive cataclysms of the earth.

The growth of upland materials varies with their locations being greater in temperate and tropical zones than in frigid zones; while few data have as yet been gathered about the rates of growth of slimes, mucks, corals, limestones, and sands of the sea bottoms.

The earth is growing larger in diameter at the rate of approximately four feet in each thousand years. The average buildup of topsoil for any one place is about one foot in each five hundred years. This approximation is based on the data of the drilling at Spur Ranch as already given in detail. (See page 73) . The average stratum was found to be about thirteen feet in depth.

It is assumed that each stratum represented one epoch of time, each of which averaged six thousand years for the upper strata; this figure is subject to correction when better data on the duration of epochs become available.

At Ur of the Chaldeans and at Cnossus, Crete, where excavations have been made, the build up is found to be six or eight feet for each thousand years. Those underground remains of cities clearly show how the development of topsoil materials have buried the evidences of the various civilizations.

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Entirely new concepts of the formation of some of the earth's materials will follow, as naturally as day follows night, when we accept as an axiom in geophysics the fact that the earth rotates on different Axes of Figure at recurrent intervals of 6,000 to 7,000 years. The metamorphosis of the rocks of the earth will be seen to be the natural consequence of a new earth layer overlying an earlier one; and the percolating rain waters become recognized as the agent which dissolves the elements in the new layer; these elements then impregnate and crystallize with the elements of the lower layers.

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II  -  Pre Historic Forest Floors

IN PRIMEVAL FORESTS there was formed a deep bedding of vegetable matter which constituted their floor or ground such as is noticeable to a lesser extent during a walk through woodlands today. This floor consists of the remnants of tree trunks, twigs, leaves, and any buds, blossoms or fruits thrown off in the yearly life cycles of plant life. A topsoil is thus developed, and this annual growth continues throughout an epoch of time lasting between 6,000 and 7,000 years, resulting in a considerable thickness or depth of newly developed earth materials.

If a raging fire consumes a forest, a new forest will eventually grow up in the same area. The layer of ash will appear as a telltale streak or vein in the rock layer into which the dead vegetation becomes metamorphosed during subsequent epochs.

During a normal careen of the globe, as described in Part One of this book, a layer of sand, shells, and other flood debris from the oceans may also be laid over this former forest floor in varying depths. And this area of the earth with its topsoil formed during an entire epoch will be moved by the careen of the globe to a new latitude, where new forests will grow, either temperate or tropical, depending upon the new location.

Regardless of the latitude to which the area is shifted, or what debris covers the area, the usual secondary forces of nature continue at work including rains which fall and sink into the ground. Water, under certain conditions, as it percolates through the new top layers of the earth takes up, or dissolves, silica and other chemical elements in the sands and shells of the newly overlaid upper stratum. Now containing minerals in solution, the waters slowly penetrate the vegetable matter of the organic substrata, causing petrification of the vegetation.

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The minerals are given up by the percolating waters. The vegetation being in an amorphous condition produces a different effect of petrification from that found as trees or produced from vegetation having definite solid shapes. The dissolved minerals crystallize according to their natures and combine the chemical elements of the amorphous vegetation with their own elements, resulting in the crystalline structures recognized today in granite and similar rocks, now normally classed as igneous rock formations that is, rocks formed by volcanic work.

As an example of the work of ancient causes which produce the same effects even today, let us consider the creation of the fossil forests of Yellowstone Park, described in Part One. In the U.S. Geological Survey, 1912, Trees and Vegetation, Arnold Hague mentions about 2,000 springs in the Yellowstone area, mostly alkaline hot water springs, and states that ’a to 3’s of the mineral content of the waters is silica.

When the hot spring waters sink into the ground, become chilled while percolating amid the buried vegetable ground materials, and have to give up their minerals, it is found that most of the minerals have become captured by the vegetable materials, or have captured the vegetation with which the minerals have crystallized. Thus, the petrification of trees and other smaller vegetation is now going on underground.

Several hundred thousand years have evidently been required to produce the 27 non contiguous strata of forest tree levels in Amethyst Mountain, along the Lamar River (page 36). The silica became quartz, opal, and granite rock.

When it is hot at 194 F. as in hot springs or geysers water will absorb and carry more than twice the amount of silica absorbed when it is cold at 68 F. and is percolating in the ground. Conversely, if water is fully saturated with silica when hot, it must surrender more than half its load of silica when it is chilled to 68 F.

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"The remarkable efficiency of silicification processes at least indicates that silica can be transported in solutions of such mobility and tenuousness as to effect widespread penetrations and impregnations."

(CS. Hitchins, in Bulletin of Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. XLIV, 1935. )

We have shown how soils build up through vegetation and that trees become petrified when underground. It follows that plants, grasses, and other particles of the soil also become petrified. Salient examples are the glass like obsidian strata and the immense quantities of stone like, glassy materials of angular shapes, or breccia, which have resulted from the weathering and decay of these fossilized materials when exposed on the ground in Yellowstone Park.

The rock structures in which these trees and other vegetation are entombed also contain great numbers of impressions of plants many of which are perfectly preserved, including roots, stems, branches and fruiting organs, as well as grasses. (Knowlton, in the U.S. Geological Survey, 1944, Yellowstone.)

These granitic rocks appear to be "soil rocks", such as have once been soil. The identified vegetation could not have developed and withstood the molten lava of the laccolith theory or the fine volcanic dust of another theory. To say that the rocks are "igneous" is now superfluous and unnecessary. It seems more reasonable to account for these so called "igneous" rocks by the new theory of "soil rocks," and the word "orgneous" would more correctly express their nature.

More detailed data linking vegetation and granitic rocks are given later (pages 248 and 249) . For the moment, let it merely be pointed out that more than 25 of the mineral elements that occur in vegetation are also found in granites.

The theory that granitic rocks are igneous is attributed to the Scot James Hutton (born 1726). He saw that granitic rock layers were interleaved between other layers of rocks, and concluded that what he saw could only have been created by molten magma from the earth’s interior. In Hutton’s days nothing was known about Antarctica nor about the wobble of the earth.

The careenings of the globe with the attendant growth of successive earth strata explain the development of granitic rocks, and the occurrence of granitic rocks is offered as proof of the recurrent careenings of the globe.

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During a world flood a layer of ocean sand together with other materials is assumed to have been thrown up and to have covered a forest of broken tree trunks. Rain waters, having penetrated the sand layer, picked up silica and other minerals in tenuous solutions, carried them along in penetrations of buried trees and forest floors causing petrification of both by replacement, impregnation and crystallization.

Quartz seams appear in many rocks. Silica (Si0=) in tenuous water solutions appears to have crystallized into quartz. Clearly, if silica laden waters were penetrating buried forest areas and became crystallized into quartz in fractures and cracks, then the activating solutions must have penetrated the vegetable and mineral elements of the soil from which the granitic rocks were eventually crystallized.

Thus, we have a new twentieth century theory for the formation of granitic rocks. They are products of underground petrification. Petrification must be assumed to have taken place on the forest floors or the ground, which consists largely of vegetable matter, because it is generally so assumed in regard to the trees. If the latter is true, why not the former

"Origin of Granite," Geological Society of America, Memoir 28, 1948, contains the following items, with my comments added: A.F. Buddington (page 36) finds two layers of granite separated by one layer of amphibolite.

"The granites locally contain these interleaves of limestone."

COMMENT: This shows that the area of the granite has been a sea bottom and an upland area, in previous epochs, in sequence. (Page 29)

 

"The sillimantic granite . . . occurs almost wholly as fibres and fibrous aggregates in association with quartz."

COMMENT: This shows that it was a forest floor which was metamorphosed into granite.

Frank F. Grant in the same memoir finds very little massive granite (page 47). On page 51 he mentions Duluth gabbro, of which the upper 10% is granite with somewhat irregular distribution. G.E. Goodspeed (page 68) finds that the dominant mechanism is the gradual penetration of activating solutions.

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In Internal Constitution of the Earth, Chap. IV, page 8, L.H. Adams states:

"Granites are hard and soft materials . . . highly compressible and less compressible mineral grains."

COMMENT: If this condition does not apply to igneous rocks, then volcanic lavas and granites are different types of rocks.

If all of the so called igneous rocks were once in the same molten mass, seething into soupy form at excessively high temperatures, after which they cooled and crystallized, how can we account for hard and soft materials remaining separated in the same rock We cannot account for the many differences in the so called igneous rocks when we suppose them all to have been ejected from the same cauldron!

When the modern theory of volcanoes (see page 236) becomes accepted and replaces the prevailing "molten internal core of the earth" theory, granitic rocks will no longer be classified as "igneous." Volcanic rocks generally contain less silica than granites (see page 249) . Sandstones and limestones as well as granitic rocks become crystalline volcanic lava when fused by excessive earth electric currents; but the fact that granites are crystalline formations does not prove them necessarily to have been lava magma.

Unlike ingots cast from molten metals, which have uniform internal structure, granites are not uniform internally. They appear to resemble dirt and debris in tiny horizons which have become crystallized. They split apart on their bedding layers when forcibly broken. Many are classified by their bedding characteristics.

Gneisses are a laminated or foliated group. The orthoclase group consists of granite rocks that break in directions at right angles. The plagioclase group includes those having oblique slanting cleavage or splits. Pyroxene abundant in some granitesis often laminated. The word itself comes from the Greek, meaning fire stranger, which connotes "not igneous."

Photomicrographs, showing cross sections of various types of granitic rocks, reveal their contents. Some are mosaics, and the particles in the mosaic show bedding layers, indicating that the mosaic particles were formed separately, by sedimentation, before they were combined into the present granite rock.

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Petrified vegetation, as seen in micrographs (see U.S. Geological Survey, Monograph 3, Part 2, 1899, Geology of Yellowstone National Park), appears to range, in varying amounts, from grasses and wood dust to small vegetable fibers, with or without an occasional grain of dirt. "Orgneous" would appear to be a more accurate definition of these rocks than "igneous."

The petrified trees of Amethyst Mountain, Yellowstone Park, are composed mainly of silica; those at Cairo, Egypt, are composed mainly of calcium. The transportation of a knocked down and buried forest to a warm climate or to an undersea location due to a normal careen of the globe may be considered a prerequisite for the calcification of the wood. Wood which has turned to stone (excluding coal) is generally found to be silicified, calcified, or partly silicified and partly calcified. The colorings of the petrified wood are due to other chemical elements and vary from red to blue, from garnet to turquoise.

When a soil layer is superimposed on another soil layer after a flood, a formation develops which is different from a superimposed silica layer. In the tropics when mining tin ore normally hard rocks, like granites, are found to be so soft that they can be dug with a spade to depths of scores or even hundreds of feet. R.H. Rastall, in The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1947, Vol.X, pages 158 59, describes this and explains it as decomposition of rocks due to chemical action. If the theory of orgneous rocks is accepted, these soft granites are now identified as partially crystallized vegetation.

Another example of non silica type of rock formation is given by Nordenskiold in his description of frozen Wood Hill of the New Siberian Islands. In his The Voyage of the Vega, he states that the tiered rock strata showed layers alternating between bare rock strata and strata containing fissile bituminous tree stems. The trees were not petrified but had turned into coal. In Yellowstone Park the trees have turned into stone.

Coal beds are found below layers of granite. But if granitic rocks were of igneous origin and were ejected from a molten magma of the earth’s interior, then the heat of the magma would have destroyed the coal layer when it penetrated through the volatile coal!

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The Coal Resources Section of the U.S. Geological Survey advises:

"At several places in Wyoming large masses of granite overlie sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age, which may contain coal at depth. The granite is not in contact with the coal. The occurrences one on the south side of Owl Creek Mountain, and another on the southwest side of the Wind River Mountain are interpreted by most geologists as being the result of thrust faulting that took place when the mountains were uplifted."

Coal beds are found below layers of limestone. Limestone was created in the oceans by corals and shellfish. Coal is formed from vegetation that grew in upland areas. Limestone is now found iii the upper strata and coal beds in the lower strata of the earth. These natural phenomena cannot be accounted for except by the theory of successive creation of the earth’s strata, during the epochs of time between the recurrent careenings of the globe.

The granitic rocks of Yellowstone Park are identified as soil rocks on account of the vegetable growth contained in them. During the very same epochs of time, ocean rocks were also being created including limestones, marbles, and sandstones. Where land and water met, different types of rocks were developed such as clays, shales, and slates.

The formation of soil rocks and sandstones is due to the fact that water absorbs, dissolves, and carries minerals in solution and in suspension, and that minerals form into crystals when changing from aqueous to solid form.

The mineral content of drinking water is indicated by the scales which form on the bottoms of kettles used for boiling water, and also by the tiny crystals or flakes which are the sediment from the microscopic mist produced by cold water spray type home humidifiers and appear as a dust on floors and furnishings.

Mud - which is a viscid form of silt - is wet dirt and is composed mostly of tiny, even microscopic, mineral and vegetable particles. On drying out, the absorbed minerals crystallize according to their natures and solidify with the organic and inorganic particles. Mud changes to hardpan. Hardpan changes to rock.

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In penetrating strata of vegetable matter, the water-borne minerals have replaced the vegetable matter in petrified trees and wood, and have crystallized to unite closely and intimately all of the molecules of the amorphous vegetation and join them so as to form an integrated whole.

In penetrating sand strata, the water-borne minerals have permeated and impregnated the interstices between the adjacent grains of sand-welding them together to form solid sandstones.

Embryonic rocks, which have not yet become fully solidified, are common among sandstones and granitic rocks. Their powers of cohesion vary over a very wide range under test pressures. Some of these soft rocks such as those found in the Long Island terminal moraine-resemble the mottled gray granites common in the vicinity of New York City.

The softer stones will crumble under finger pressures and are commonly called rottenstone. Some granitic-type samples crumble with a tendency to break in parallel planes of about a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. They are evidently not deep layered rocks which were once hard but have now softened: but they appear to be recently formed rudimentary stones still undergoing the process of formation, but not yet fully solidified.

The prevailing notion that rocks do not grow is refuted by recent developments with regard to mica an element that is present in many granitic rocks. Today mica is being grown from what are called tiny seeds of midi, and the synthetic mica has the same properties as the natural mica of granitic rocks. (See Technical Report 1040, National Bureau of Standards.)

Rock making, by the injection of silica and calcium, is today an established commercial routine. Engineering specialists have developed techniques for the strengthening of the supporting soils of building foundations, highways, and mines. Subsoil earths of less firm textures are converted into rock by the injection of silicate of soda, calcium chloride, and other activating agents, which gel or crystallize with the soil.

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Heat cycles have been important in developing some of the existing types of rock. Water, when warm, absorbs and holds double the amount of silica that it can continue to hold when cold as already indicated. Magnesium and other minerals appear in dissolved form in warm water; but calcium is dissolved in cold water but is rejected when the water gets hot.

Cold water issuing from underground springs in Italy and Spain, for example is found to contain calcium, dissolved from underground limestone. When these cold spring waters become warmed up in the sun, in slow flowing streams, the calcium crystallizes out as travertine and as aragonite two forms of very hard, crystalline rock.

Thus, in an ever continuing process of creation, rocks develop as the result of two opposite heat cycles. Granitic rocks are formed in Yellowstone Park and elsewhere because water absorbs silica and other minerals when hot and rejects them when it gets cold. Travertine and aragonite are formed because water, containing carbon dioxide, absorbs calcium when cold but rejects it when warm.

Topsoil is well known to all dwellers in temperate zones. It is dirt consisting mainly of decayed vegetation, including roots and wind blown dust grains. Under certain conditions soil becomes hardpan and hardpan becomes rock.

The creation of certain kinds of dirt created from vegetables can be traced to very humble beginnings. The lichens, for example, found in Antarctica and in Greenland are described by Rutherford Platt as,

"A strange partnership of fungus and algae, whose acid bearing growths hold fast to glass hard boulders. Lichens have no need for soil, but producing it, lay the cornerstones for flowers and trees. They are the plant world pioneers, bringing life where none existed."

(National Geographic Magazine, April, 1957).

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The Creation of Limestone

THE SEQUENCE from grasses to corals to limestone epitomizes the creation process. Limestone is calcium carbonate (CaC03). It is developed mainly from corals, shellfish, and the various crustacea and foraminifera. The calcium is created in vegetation. To illustrate, calcium is the bone building material in the bodies of calves, and very obviously it is produced from the grasses which cows eat. Grasses are rich in calcium. From these well known facts the theory develops naturally that the calcium contained in limestone comes from vegetation.

Billions of tons of grasses are grown each year. When dead and decayed they are leached by fresh rain water which picks up calcium and carbon and carries these elements to the oceans by way of the rivers.

Many references to the percentages of calcium in grasses, legumes, and other vegetation are condensed and assembled in "Bibliography of the Literature on the Minor Elements and their Relation to Plant and Animal Nutrition," by the Chilean Nitrate Educational Bureau.

Research conducted at Oklahoma State University on chemical elements of the earth found in vegetation is reported on by H. A. Daniels in The Journal of the American Society of Agronomy, 26, 1934, No.6, pp. 496?503. He reports:

"368 samples of 25 different kinds of grasses showed an average calcium content of 0.351%. 336 samples of 12 kinds of legumes showed an average calcium content of 1.373%. Grasses of India showed 0.314 to 0.814% calcium. Bermuda grass was 0.659% and alfalfa was 1.507% calcium. A listing of legumes showed 1.040 to 1.833% calcium."

In his report Daniels further states,

"Crops high in mineral content but low in calcium and phosphorus remained low when grown on fertile soil. Crops high in calcium and phosphorus always bad large amounts, even on poor soil."

This can be paraphrased by saying that the percentage of calcium in a plant is not a function of the soil in which the plant grew; but it may be influenced by it.

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All of the many successive layers of limestone rock grew originally at the bottoms of shallow seas in warm climates. They are now observable where mountains have been elevated or canyons gouged out. Each of the individual limestone strata of the earth grew in one of the successive epochs of time which ended many thousands of years before the epoch of time in which we live. The calcium which created these stone layers was absorbed from sea waters by animal life and it was constantly replaced through the agency of vegetable life. That same creative process of metamorphosis is going on today.

Much of the calcium now being carried to the oceans by the rivers has been dissolved and taken from limestone rocks by flowing fresh water. It is being used over again by animal life to create new coral polyps and new oyster shells in tropical and temperate zones respectively.


Volcanoes and Hot Springs

VOLCANOES FUNCTION somewhat on the same principle as that on which the electric arc furnace is based, where electric currents melt iron to be used in certain types of steel. Hot springs develop on the principle of the electric blanket that keeps you warm on cold wintry nights.

Very small electric currents flow through the wires of the electric blanket, creating a gentle heat. Excessive electric currents would melt the wires. The electric earth currents causing hot springs are not strong enough to melt the rocks through which they flow, but volcanoes come about when the electric currents are strong enough to melt the rocks. The elimination of the older hypotheses of a molten core of the earth and a shrinking crust leaves electric earth currents as the more rational explanation of the concentrations of heat which cause volcanoes and hot springs.

The internal heat of the earth aside from that received directly from the sun can be readily accounted for as being a condition related to the surface of the earth and caused by myriads of electric currents flowing in the upper earth strata. We know that all electric earth currents heat the materials through which they flow.

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Measurements of the internal heat of the earth at different places show great and conflicting variations. They have been reported rather fully in The Internal Constitution of the Earth published by The National Research Council. Those data and others disprove dramatically the presently accepted theory that temperatures below the earth’s surface increase uniformly with depth.

The mistaken assumption that the earth’s internal temperature increases with depth was underscored when the 12’.i mile long Simplon Tunnel connecting Switzerland and Italy was built during the first decade of this century. The records show that great fear was expressed at the time that the tunnel temperatures would be abnormally high.

The level of the tunnel was, therefore, made higher than the grade of the railroad required, in order to keep away from the assumed "hot core" of the earth, it being generally assumed that the temperature gradient for the internal heat of the earth followed the surface configuration. The hot internal temperatures which had been predicted were found not to exist. Today as shown by a recent test the temperature in the middle of the tunnel varies between 75 and 84 degrees Fahrenheit.

Proofs that the earth is not hot at great depths are also provided by deep water wells and by oil and gas wells, after the heat of the drillings has been dissipated. We find ice cold waters in the abysmal deeps of the oceans nearly seven miles nearer to the assumed "hot core" of the earth than to the surface waters. The deep water does not get hot and no convection currents of rising hot water have been found. There is little or no evidence of the conduction of heat through the ocean bottoms to the ocean waters (The Oceans, by H.U. Sverdrup, pages 110 and 738) . All this refutes the current theory to the effect that the earth’s "crust" is very thin under the oceans, and also the theory holding that there is a hot molten core below it. The empirical data contradict all those theories. Electrically created heat is the main cause of the variations of the internal heat of the earth at different cross sections, and at different times for the same sections. This can be checked by research in many cases. Electric voltages, from thousands of causes, create the earth electric currents, and the earth currents are the cause of the heat. Local voltages are equalized by the flow of the electric currents.

Page 238

A knowledge of electric earth currents is a prerequisite for comprehending the electrical origin of volcanoes and hot springs and the nature of electric voltages must be understood for one to understand electric earth currents.

An electric voltage or potential was called an electromotive force in the early days when batteries were the prime source of generating electricity commercially. These batteries consisted of two dissimilar metals, usually immersed in an acid solution. It was found that the metals generated different electrical potentials between themselves. Later it was discovered that voltages or differences in potential could be created by moving a copper conductor in a magnetic field so that the conductor cut across the magnetic lines of force or flux.

Electric voltages in the earth are today being created, like battery voltages, by two dissimilar metals, and, as in the case of dynamo voltages, by externally driven conductors of earth material being moved across magnetic fields of force.

It was also discovered that whenever an electric voltage or potential was created and an electric conducting medium was used to make an electric circuit, by connecting the positive to the negative terminals, electric current would flow and a contact maker and breaker, or electric switch, was needed in the electric circuit either to permit or shut off the flow of electric current by closing or opening the switch. When electric current flows from one terminal to the other of a dynamo, the voltage is sustained by the driving force of the prime mover. In a thunder cloud, by contrast, the voltage is dissipated and equalized by the flow of electric current in the flash of lightning.

It was discovered that the rate of flow of an electric current was directly in proportion to the voltage and inversely in proportion to the resistance of the electric circuit. This is expressed as Ohm’s Law. The formula is
 

C = E / R

R where C is current, E is voltage, and R is resistance.
 

Page 239

It is usually expressed in amperes, volts and ohms, respectively. Then it was found by test measurements that the flow of electric currents heats the mediums through which they flow in proportion to the square of the electric current multiplied by the resistance of the material through which it flows. The heat is measured in watts of energy. The law is written W - C²R, where W is watts, C is current in amperes, and R is resistance in ohms.

One watt is the product of one ampere multiplied by one volt and is equivalent in energy to 0.0009477 B.T.U’s (British Thermal Units) per second, also approximately 3.4 B.T.U’s per hour and 82 B.T.U’s per day of 24 hours.

Data are lacking on the volume of the earth currents which cause fusions of the upper strata of mountains; but the rate of current flow, measured in amperes, can be readily approximated from the above formula if the accumulated B.T.U’s of heat energy and the elapsed time of the heat build up can be computed, together with the cross section of the fused area and the distance and direction of the current flow.

Volcanic craters often occur at or near mountain tops. This proves to be entirely natural when the cross sections of the mountains are analyzed. All earth strata, when originally created, were laid down in approximately horizontal layers. Mountains are up-thrusts which bend and crack the upper strata. A rounded or circular type mountain may be visualized as half an onion, resting on its cut section, with some of the peak layers of the onion’s successively created skin layers damaged or cracked by folding or faulting.

Earth electric currents, traveling in the rock strata, become concentrated at the peak, where they are retarded by the high resistances of the fractured sections of stone; or the higher voltages of the ambient air, due to elevation, may influence the flow of electric currents. The voltages of the air vary greatly with location, weather conditions, and time of day, the voltage gradient per foot of elevation ranging from around 10 to 80 volts. (See Physics o f the Air, by W.J. Humphreys, page 398.) Air voltages at the tops of mountains are correspondingly high. St. Elmo’s Fire at the tips of s1iips’ masts is a visual display of the electric current always flowing between air and ground and caused by the differences in the voltages of air and ground.

Page 240

It becomes easy to conceive of a volcano resulting, when voltages become too high and there is an uncontrolled excess of electric current. The fault in the rocks becomes overheated by the electric current because of its high resistance. A blowout occurs in the electric circuit just as blowouts occur in any other electric circuits where a loose joint or fault occurs.

The fusing of the rock materials is nature’s way of repairing the break in the electric circuit. The volcanic eruption is the incidental display of the process and nature of the repair job.

The variations in the chemical compositions of lavas from different volcanoes indicate that magma basins are isolated and hence imply that they are enclosed in solid rock and are not directly connected with a terrestrially large and general source such as the hypothetical hot core of the earth.

Some specific proofs follow:

Paracutin volcano, our youngest mountain, was born in 1943. Its appearance as a volcano is most reasonably and simply explained as being the result of earth electric currents which overheated the earth substrata at that particular location. The farmland got hot.

Finally, a fusing temperature was reached. The earth materials became incandescent and soft. They lost their rigidity and resistance to the compression pressures which exist in the upper earth strata, such as the pressures that cause excavations to cave in unless they are shored up and buttressed against the lateral pressures by bulkheads.

Earth pressures at the Panama Canal force the bed of the canal upward in locations where the rock is soft. Coastal mountains and rocks thrust up in Antarctica and Greenland are the results of the inland pressures of the central, growing ice masses.

Page 241

The U.S. Navy has sponsored research on earth pressures, since they affect their piers and bulkheads.

At Paracutin these lateral pressures caused earth materials to flow sideways, replacing the soft molten earth materials; these became elevated by the lateral pressures into the shape of a dome or blown up bladder to the height of about 820 feet above the plain of the former Mexican farmland.

Paracutin is a new mountain but an old phenomenon. Hundreds of other great cinder cones in the area can be rationally attributed to the internal heat of the earth, generated by the development of electric voltages which created earth electric currents which became too concentrated and strong for the rocks to carry without becoming overheated.

The last previous eruption in this area was that of Jorullo mountain about 80 to 90 miles to the northwest. This mountain, was created in 1759 and became inactive in 1760. Both mountains are less than a hundred miles from the Pacific coast and at elevations of about 7,400 and 4,300 feet above sea level, respectively.

If magnetic types of rock, magnetite, can be discovered in the vicinity of the volcanoes, where the earth electric currents flowed, they will be found to possess a magnetic saturation many times greater than the magnetisms being imparted to rocks by normal earth electric currents. Verification of this fact by future research is predicted this will, in turn, confirm that earth electric currents have caused those volcanoes.

Electric storms frequently occur in the earth’s atmosphere, often accompanied by a display of aurora borealis. Such storms interrupt grounded telegraph and telephone systems. These interruptions are associated with an overcharged condition of the ambient air.

Electric currents and magnetism are always inseparable; therefore, the overcharged ambient atmosphere creates a voltage condition of higher potential in the conducting earth materials, rotating from west to east below. The conducting sections of earth materials cut across magnetic lines of force and, like the windings on a dynamo armature, create higher potentials. Higher potentials with unchanged earth resistance create an increase in the rate of flow of the electric earth currents in the circuits of the earth’s materials.

Page 242

Electric storm voltages have been recorded as high as 500 volts, and the resulting electric earth currents, in grounded telegraph circuits, have caused sufficient heat to burn out coils and char paper insulation on cables. This gives us an analogy for the earth electric currents which blow the tops off mountains, cause volcanic mountains, and create hot springs.

Thousands of forces are at work creating earth electric currents by means of changes in the electric voltages occurring in the upper strata of the earth and in its ambient atmosphere.

Some of the causes of the changes in electric voltage conditions are heat, friction, and contact of dissimilar metals or materials, including changes in voltage due to changes in temperature, as in thermo couples and thermo piles.

Other causes of electrical potentials are impact, percussion, vibration, disruptive cleavage as in tearing paper, crystallization, combustion, evaporation, pressure, pyro and piezo electricity in crystals, animal and vegetable electricity, and chemical, electrochemical and dynamo electricity resulting from voltages being created by power?driven conductors being moved across a magnetic field of force, or magnetic fields of force moving across conductors, including earth strata.

The rock strata of conducting materials of the earth, moving with its daily rotation, cut across the lines of force established by the incoming energy from celestial space, including the energy of the sun’s light and heat radiations, which creep from east to west against the rotation of the globe. The rock strata resemble the windings of a big, externally driven dynamo, creating earth voltages.

It is recognized at once that the voltages thus created must cause electric earth currents to flow. These voltages are mainly surface voltages, and the currents flow in inverse ratio to the resistances of the earth materials.

The electromagnetic force of the sun’s rays is demonstrated by the sun flower with the single broad flower and stalk, which turns with the sun from morning to night, and then at sunrise next day, reverses itself and again follows the sun on the succeeding day. James Clerk Maxwell formulated the rule that every portion of a circuit is acted upon by a magnetic force urging it in such a direction as to make it embrace the greatest possible number of lines of force. It was from that principle that the direct current electric motor was developed.

Page 243

Gravitation based on the new theory of tremendous amounts of electrical energy reaching the earth continuously from the suns of celestial space fits the theory of earth electric currents like a piece in a jigsaw puzzle. The theory holds that energy rays from celestial space, shot out by countless billions of stars, collide with the earth, create its weight, and by striking unevenly make it rotate.

This incoming electrical energy, together with the sun’s light and heat radiations, acting, for example, on thermo couples and thermo piles of adjacent dissimilar materials, produce spontaneous voltages which cause the flow of electric earth currents; many of these change in intensity between noon and midnight, since they are tied in with the rotation of the earth on its Axis of Figure.

Earth electric currents do not flow uniformly but vary with the conductivity of the earth’s strata. Some are good and others are poor electrical conductors. Some are dielectrics when dry, but become good conductors when wet. Sandstone, marble, and limestone, which are poor conductors when dry, become fairly good conductors when wet.

Earth electric currents will become concentrated in the good conducting earth materials. Activities of volcanoes should be expected and predicted when the materials of the earth in that particular area are wet or moist and become good conductors of electric currents.

Telltale magnetic rocks whose directional pointings differ from the directions in which the earth’s electrical field is now magnetizing similar rocks, are described in Part One (page 85). The failure of present earth electric currents to change the orientation of some of these old magnetic rocks supports the theory that the earth electric currents are generally near the surface but not always.

Page 244

Earth electric currents are found to be present at considerable depths in some areas. For example, a constant volume of steam arises from a 3,189 foot deep drilling in Geothermal Valley near Rotorua, North Island, New Zealand, indicating the presence of deeply flowing earth electric currents; and similar thermal conditions exist in many other regions, including Iceland, Tuscany, and Yellowstone Park.

The universal presence of earth electric currents and their variations in magnitude and directions support the theory that they are the causes of volcanoes and hot springs.

Two erroneous but widely held theories hold that the earth has a molten core and that the core is largely of iron, a fact which causes the inductor compass to point north south. Iron loses its magnetic characteristics at red heat. When molten, iron is nonmagnetic and, therefore, a molten iron core of the earth could not affect the pointing of an inductor compass.


The Inductor Compass

The Inductor compass, commonly called the magnetic compass, reveals the presence of earth electric currents everywhere. The compass action indicates that it responds more nearly to the laws of electromagnetic inductance than to the laws of magnets.

Electromagnetic induction results from the myriad and all-pervading electric earth currents. The compass needle turns and dips with a magnetic moment of force, but it does not move itself toward a magnetic pole the way a magnet does. In most places on the earth’s surface it does not point directly to the earth’s magnetic poles.

If fastened to a block of wood, freely floating in water, it will turn and point in a north south direction, but it will not move toward either magnetic pole. It does not move toward a magnet the way a toy magnetic fish, floating in a bowl of water, moves toward a magnet. It has a north-seeking and south seeking end and is held in its north-south pointing position by the magnetic flux established by the electric earth currents. The inductor needle can be used to measure the intensity of the earth’s magnetism at any location. These measurements, in turn, give the direction and intensity of the coexisting activating earth electric currents.

Page 245

The inductor needle can be used to measure the intensity of the earth’s magnetism at any location. These measurements, in turn, give the direction and intensity of the coexisting activating earth electric currents.

No earth current exists without creating a magnetic field of force. If one is created, the other one simultaneously exists at right angles to it. The two always coexist.

Observations of the compass and dipping needle at many places on the earth’s surface show daily and annual variations in direction and magnitude, which appear to be a natural result caused by the variations in the local earth currents and their coexisting magnetic fields of force. An iron core in the earth’s center, even if cold and not molten, would not produce these observed variations.

Observations of the variations in the declination of the compass for ship routes all over the globe, show that the pointing directions follow an irregular curved line not a straight nor a meridian earth circle line. This would indicate that the chief motivating force of the inductor compass must come from local earth magnetic fields of force, created by the coexisting earth electric currents. It disproves the theory of a unidirectional great earth magnet.

Earth electric currents, if flowing from east to west, would cause an inductor compass needle placed above the currents to point north; if placed below the currents, the needle would point south. This is based on the observed action of the compass needle when held above and below a wire carrying a unidirectional current.

A simple test of this would be to lower an inductor compass into a mine shaft, so that it is placed below the earth’s surface currents. Theoretically, the needle should reverse its direction of pointing. Engineers consulted for corroborative empirical data say that they never use the compass in mines because it is unreliable due to the electric currents in adjacent wires, including trolley wires, and to the nearby presence of steel rails and iron and steel pipes in the mines.

Page 246

Aviators have reported that the inductor compass becomes useless and gyrates wildly upon entering thunderstorm areas, where electric currents are rushing about in all directions between clouds. In this case it is clear that it is electric currents, not a magnetic core of the earth, that control the needle fluctuations.

The knowledge of earth electric currents, gained through observations of the actions of the inductor compass, shows their all pervading existence and adds to the proofs that make it reasonable to assign the causes of volcanoes and hot springs to their excessive concentrations in specific areas.

The first reference to an iron core in the earth was made by William Gilbert in 1600. He called the earth a great magnet with an iron core. Later, the nebular hypothesis expanded mathematically by LaPlace was based on the assumption that the heavier elements would be concentrated in the center of the earth; and iron is a heavy metal. The current edition of The Encyclopaedia Britannica carries adequate refutation of LaPlace’s mathematics as applied to the earth.

Among former attempts to explain the creation of the earth, within the scope of the laws of nature, are the nebular hypothesis, the planetesimal hypothesis, and the tidal theory. All leave unexplained why the earth has been created in strata and how and why fossil plants and animals got into the lower layers.

The new cosmic geophysical theory here presented and explaining the origin of the earth’s materials also explains why the earth is composed of stratified layers, why well cores, drillings, excavations, cliffsides, and ravaged mountainsides show earth formations by periods of time, and why clays, shales, and slates and some other rocks show their development and growth by years, like the annual rings in trees.

This new theory of the continuous creation of earth materials from radiant energy resulting in rock layers which generally represent epochs of time between the recurrent careens of the globe is a contradiction of the theory which presently prevails in academic circles that the so called igneous rocks are the ultimate source of all of the materials of the earth’s upper layers (excepting limestones, peats, coal, fossil trees), and that they have become solidified from a previous molten condition, forming the so called crust of the earth.

Page 247

Contradictions of widely held popular theories are supported by the following evidence:

• The earth does not have a molten core

• Laccoliths were not produced by molten rock extruded from below

• The earth does not have a shrinking crust The earth is not shrinking in diameter

• These evidences also show that:

  • The earth has been constructed in consecutive layers of strata

  • Fossils in the successive layers indicate the ages of the strata

  • It must be recognized that all academic geology is not a body of indisputable and immutable truth. Geology has never been anything more than a body of well supported probable opinion!

  • The academic treatment of geological phenomena must eventually concentrate on the opinions requiring the fewest postulates to explain them a well accepted philosophic principle. The postulation of earth electric currents is such a simple and unifying theory that explains a host of geological phenomena.

Minerals in Vegetation

THE CHEMICAL elements that constitute the average content of all vegetation can be assumed to be C6H12O6 with about 1% mineral matter; or 6 atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen and 6 of oxygen, plus minerals. This information was kindly furnished in a communication from Dr. Richard M. Klein, Curator of Plant Physiology of The New York Botanical Garden; and his estimate was confirmed by the Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms of the Smithsonian Institution.

Page 248

Half a century ago wood and vegetation were generally sidered as being composed of only three chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and they were classed as carbohydrates. Today, vegetation is known to contain 5 1 of the 92 basic chemicals of the earth; and many of the minerals found in vegetable growths are currently considered as being essential to these growths either activating growth directly or functioning as catalysts to promote growth, as when sprayed or painted on plants or embedded in the adjacent soil.

In "Bibliography of the Literature on the Minor Elements and their Relation to Plant and Animal Nutrition," published by Chilean Nitrate Company, thousands of references are given to books and essays pointing out the existence of the following chemical elements in vegetation (table, right):
 

(Nine rare chemical elements have also been identified in plants, but have not been listed here.)
 

The above named chemical elements found in plants and in the animals which cat the plants all become normal constituents of the soil, because all animal and plant life at death become part of the soil. There is, therefore, a constant buildup of earth materials containing the chemical elements found in plants and animals. The chemical elements found in plants are also found in the rocks. More have been found in rocks than in plants; but it also happens that data on rock analyses have been gathered more extensively by more persons and for a longer period of time than have data on the mineral analyses of plants.

Chemical elements identified in some of the common rocks are listed below. Seventy five of the chemical elements have begin identified in rocks, and 54 in vegetation.
 

Page 250

 

A Copper Bearing Tree

. . . was reported by Professor G.B. Frankfurter of the University of Minnesota in Chemical News, Vol. 79, 1899, page 44. He states that

"bright copper colored powder is disseminated through the pores of the tree . . . granular copper . . . some granules formed flakes as large as 1 ? millimeters diameter . . . found to be pure metallic copper . . . 1.2 milligrams of copper to 100 grams of wood . . . distributed heart 0.8, half way 1.86, near bark 3.95, average 1.2."

These data indicate an increase in copper content with increase in age of the tree, an oak, whose age and weight are not given.

Assuming that this one oak tree produced a half ounce of copper, lived one hundred years and then died and rotted by slow combustion oxidation its mineral contents left in the soil would develop to a depth of about thirteen feet during a 6,000year epoch of time (see page 36) ; assuming also that during that period of time many more such copper bearing trees grew in that same area and disappeared at death, then that soil can be assumed to have copper particles disseminated throughout its mass. It would be classed as porphyry copper ore.

A forest fire destroying such copper bearing trees in past ages could account for our now finding molten globules of copper in the former soil, which is now rock and displays an occasional dark streak of rock strata, which indicates that it was once a burnt over forest floor. This resume of developments indicates that such rocks were never igneous.

The recurrent roll arounds of the earth explain many sporadic locations of mineral ores. The copper bearing oak tree is a specific example of minerals occurring in a land plant (see page 247 for percentage of minerals in vegetation). It is further postulated that copper was developed in the lush vegetation of some ancient sea bottoms, and enveloped in successive layers of what was once the accumulating muck of thousands of years. In our present epoch of time some of these deposits happen to be high above sea level.

Page 251

The high elevations of some porphyry copper deposits and their large areas have an analogy in the elevations and comparable sizes of chalk deposits. The chalk cliffs of Dover, England, are now high above sea level and cover many square miles, including parts of the formation that is now across the English Channel, in Normandy. The materials of the chalk cliffs were created on the ocean bottoms by globergerina, during a period covering thousands of years. The animals themselves have disappeared, just as the oak trees that bore copper disappeared, but their mineral content has remained as a part of the growth of the earth.

In view of the recurrent roll arounds of our globe, and of the successive epochs of time between earth revolutions, it is reasonable to postulate that copper and other minerals have at times been dissolved and then re-crystallized with other elements of the earth, during epochs of time when they were at other latitudes, in other temperatures, and under conditions favoring such metamorphoses.

This new cosmic geophysical theory may also be the correct explanation for the occurrence of copper in large masses, as is the case in mines in Michigan. It is assumed that the copper grew in sea vegetation or in land plants.

Copper is among the minor or trace elements found to be invariably present to some extent in all plants and animals. I have tried to find seaweed, rich in copper, that would break loose and drift in ocean currents and settle in an eddy, hole or submarine canyon, and there disintegrate, leaving the copper and other minerals to accumulate as a residue, like ashes from a fire. At any one location it should be found in alternate layers of the earth’s strata, and widely distributed over the earth. A likely source would seem to be the weed of the Sargasso Sea, known as sargassum, but research centers have so far no record of the copper content, if any, or of any minerals, in sargassum.

Seaweed research disclosed that titanium, a valuable and scarce metal, occurs in Scottish seaweeds, Fucas speratis, in concentrations 10,000 times stronger than that found in the enveloping waters.

"Soaking a fresh Laminaria (seaweed) frond in water . . . does not remove the trace elements, which appear therefore, to be in insoluble form."

(Black and Mitchell, in The Journal of the Marine Biological Association, Plymouth, England.)

This statement would appear to be substantial proof that the trace elements do not arrive in the seaweeds from waterborne solutions; but rather that the trace elements in the water come from plant life which, in turn, develops it from the energy of light rays which become occluded or frozen as atoms making up the plant structures.

Page 252

"Below about 300 feet depth, where the light rays fade out, marine plants cease to grow."

(Columbia Viking Desk Encyclopaedia, page 604).

When the temperatures of the seaweeds are raised to incandescence or above, the atoms of the plants return to the state of radiant energy.

"Cadmium, chromium, cobalt and tin have been found in the ash of marine organisms and hence it is implied that they occur in seawater, although so far they have not been obtained directly."

(Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry, 1956, page 1107. )

Mineral ash may result from both vegetable and animal life.

"The sea squirt, Phallusia mamillata, for example has 1,000,000 times more vanadium in its blood than the water it lives in; the deep blue blood of the octopus has 100,000 times as much copper," according to Professor Ernst Bayer of Tubingen University in Germany, who has studied the ability of marine animals to effect concentrations in their bodies of some of the rare metals found in sea water.

(Time Magazine, May 15, 1964, page 90 ).

Vegetation whose ash produces minerals is mentioned on page 235 for calcium and on page 250 for copper; on page 265 the creation of water from vegetation is outlined.

This creative process has been going on continuously epoch after epoch as part of the creation of the successive layers of the earth’s minerals. If we know how and where metals are formed as minor trace elements, it will be easier to determine the likely locations of such metals in the ground.

Page 253

Our increasing knowledge of the buildup of the materials of the earth, strata by strata, epoch by epoch, and of the successive changes in the latitude of the various areas of the earth’s surface, affords an opportunity for introducing a new theory of the creation of some of the mineral ore deposits. The minerals of the earth have developed as explained elsewhere in this treatise, and ore bodies have grown in situ, always resting on the earth strata that were the surface of the earth or ocean bottom of the epoch of their creation. Shallow ore bodies are found to follow extensive synclines and anticlines of the underlying rock strata which supported them when developing, and the metals are generally found in veins, faults, sills, dikes, saddles, lenses, flats, sheets, reefs, and bedded formations, all of which are now at various angles to the horizontal.

Many metallic minerals are found along faults. Faults are likely to have occurred along lines of weakness and are naturally created along the unconformities between a former ocean bed and a new earth layer, because new earth material had not had time to become rigidly consolidated rock before the next rollaround of the globe occurred. Many of the metallic ores have been found in the ashes of seaweeds, and as the oceans cover about 71% of the earth’s surface, it can be logically assumed that most of such minerals were created in the oceans. Many of the branching ore veins, now slanted or vertical, may have got this shape because the ocean bottom was not level, or because it had been grooved by the erosion of water streams when it was an upland area in the previous epoch.

Earth strata were generally created horizontally. Due to the repeated cataclysms, these once flat layers of the earth are now greatly twisted and distorted; most are now slanted, some are vertical and some completely overturned. There have been more than one hundred cataclysms, due to the recurrent roll arounds of the earth, during the past million years, and that accounts for the twisted, jumbled condition of the inner rock strata.

The chemical elements classed as metals, which are most abundant in light spectra of stellar atmospheres as recorded by observatories, are generally also the most abundant in the top layers of the earth’s strata. Also, there is considerable evidence that the composition of the chemical elements of the stellar atmospheres do not vary greatly from star to star, although spectra radiations do vary with the star temperatures.

Page 254

Knowing that plants and animals grow at night, when the sun is not shining, as well as in the daytime, when it is shining (corn grows faster at night, the night blooming cereus opens only at night), we look around for the sources of energy for creating mass in the absence of sunshine; and we find it in the radiant energy rays sent to the earth, and absorbed by the earth’s elements, from countless myriads of stars each of which is a sun and a source of radiant energy rays.

It is well known that heat conditions vary on the surface of the earth, and that plants and animals vary accordingly. It is a truism to say that both plants and animals depend on the sun for heat and light. Animals and plants differ with the temperatures. There are torrid zone, temperate zone, and frigid zone plants and animals yet all feel the same drag of gravity exerted by the incoming radiations from celestial space. These radiations are identified in this treatise as being the major source of the energy from which the materials of the earth are created.

At death, both vegetable and animal life become part of the soil. During life, trees shed branches and twigs, due to storms, which all become part of the soil. Deciduous trees shed leaves and fruits or seeds annually. All vegetation has tremendous quantities of roots growing downward. These all finally disintegrate and become part of the soil in which they grew. All this growing tissue adds to and subtracts very little from the soil volume.

In addition to the soil increments from trees and from all other forms of plant life, prolific increments are added by animal life, in the form of dung while living and carcasses at death. All of this has become merged in the building up processes of the earth’s soil.

"If you live to be 70 in the United States, your lifetime menu will have included 150 head of cattle, 26 sheep, 30 pigs, 225 lambs, 2,400 chickens, 26 acres of grains, and 50 acres of fruits and vegetables."

(George Fuermann, in the Houston Post.)

This quotation calls attention to the vast volume of bodily excrements from human beings that go into the formation of topsoil. Man is, of course, a very small percentage of the total animal life which has flourished on this earth during past ages. The soils change eventually to soil rocks through petrification and metamorphism caused, at least partially, by agency of the mineral laden, sub surface waters percolating through it.

Page 255

In the ocean, other forms of future rock strata are now being created by the animal life of corals and shellfish; they create limestones, marbles, and shales. Seaweeds and other vegetable growth also crate future rock strata. All of these processes are going on today, just as they did in past ages.

These citations illustrate the fact that matter is created from radiant energy; but matter is also convertible into energy such as by incandescence and, as recently demonstrated, by atomic type bombs. The atom bomb has demolished older ideas, and appears to have established the equivalence of mass and energy. Two principles, the very cornerstones of the structure of modern science, hold that neither matter nor energy can be created or destroyed but only altered in form.

The quantitative equivalence of mass and energy is based on the accepted but unproven suggestion by Albert Einstein that the relationship of energy, E, to mass, m, is shown in the equation E mc², where c is the velocity of light.

If measured according to our conventional time distance reckoning, the velocity of light is estimated at 186,300 miles per second. From this, there has come to be a general acceptance among men of science that mass is condensed energy occluded or captured energy.

The atomic bomb provides a demonstration of the fact that when mass is suddenly converted back into energy, it disintegrates and apparently reverts to energy at about the speed of light. Originally, the materials were celestial energy rays. It is photosynthesis which brings about the condensation of energy rays into materials.

The equation for energy is:

E = 1/2mv²

where m is mass and v is velocity.

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When mass is converted into energy, as in the atom bomb there is no longer mass, but only the energy of the liberated light rays, plus some unconverted energy that appears as fallout.

It is therefore suggested, quite logically, that the equivalence of energy and mass is more accurately expressed by the formula:
 

E = MC
 

Mathematical computation of the buildup of the earth’s materials is now a possibility by substituting actual physical values for mass and energy in the formulas
 

E = mc  or  M = E / c
 

This will substantiate previous observations and deductions.

From celestial space we receive each day more than 2iz billion B.T.U.’s (British Thermal Units), and from the sun approximately 14’11 B.T.U’s; an estimate of the energy arriving on the surface of the earth is given on page 178. In calculating the age of the earth (page 55) we have used a rate of buildup of one foot in 500 years (page 17) , based on the Spur Ranch drilling; but at Ur of the Chaldeans and at Cnossus, Crete, as indicated above, the archeologists give figures for the earth buildup of one foot in about 125 years. They appear to have been areas of lush vegetation and much animal life.

These computations are based on "c" the speed of light being 186,300 miles per second. There are however known differences in the speeds of light rays. Red light rays have longer wave lengths and travel faster than violet light rays having shorter wave lengths.

"Altering the wave length of the light does change its velocity."

(The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1956, Vol. 14, page 620)

Today, it is generally accepted in science that the light rays which become the atoms of lead travel at the same rate of speed as the light rays that become the atoms of hydrogen; but we know that their wave lengths are different and that, therefore, their speeds should be different.

Let us inquire into what becomes of the 1418 B.T.U’s received daily on the earth from the sun. This energy must be stored up somewhere, because very little is rebroadcast back into space,

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and the temperature of the earth remains practically constant. One clue is the coal beds, which are huge layers of stored energy. The coal derives from vegetation, a fact which constitutes one more proof that vegetation is the result of the photosynthesis of the incoming radiant energy, the creator of all the materials of the earth.

Von Helmont’s experiment, in the seventeenth century, is an interesting illustration of how the change from incoming radiant energy to earth materials occurs. He planted a 5 pound willow tree in 200 pounds of earth and added only water. At the end of five years the tree weighed 169 pounds, with practically no change in the weight of the earth materials in which it grew. It grew on air, water, and radiant energy from celestial space. Knowing that the increased weight of the tree, 164 pounds, represents energy according to the formula E mc, we can compute, approximately, the amount of energy required to be added to the earth to create the materials of the tree. That tree is known to have absorbed C0² and to have given off hydrogen and oxygen; but what the relative amounts are is a question beyond the frontiers of present day science.

Multiply that one tree by the countless billions which have grown on the earth’s surface, and on dying, have returned materials to the earth most of which they did not extract from it and the nature of the building up process of the earth’s surface becomes apparent.

Trees, plants, and animals have been shown to eventually become parts of the soil rocks. Corals and sea shells become limestones. Parts of fishes make additions to bottom accumulations. But there is a preponderant rock known as sandstone that grows from sand. Sand appears to be created in the shallow seas directly from radiant energy.

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Sand

LOOKING ABOUT us, we discover that sea sands occur throughout the world, in shallow ocean waters, around the coasts of all continents and islands even coral islands. We discover that there are today tremendous areas of seacoast sands, which have not as yet turned into rocks, and which can be accounted for only by the theory of the creation of sand by the slow process of conversion of energy into matter.

We know that crystals of snowflakes are formed in the air (see page 223) by water, which is a mineral, so we may assume that by some similar, but not identical, metamorphosis the crystals of sand are formed in the shallow seas. They do not seem to form elsewhere.

Both snowflakes and sand crystals have this in common: they disintegrate at critical temperatures. Snowflakes change to water vapor above 32’’F., and sand crystals change to gases at temperatures above the melting point of iron. Sandstone, having once been the sands created in the shallow seas, make up over 50% of the upper rock strata of the earth. The name "authogenetic sand" has been used by oceanographers to denote sands formed by direct precipitation from sea water through chemical reactions and in order to distinguish such sands from two other forms of sand of the seas, "terriginous" and "calcaranite," which signify, respectively, sands formed from disintegrating rocks and by shells and other fragments.

We can convert the sand back to light rays and can identify the wave lengths of the rays by the spectroscope; thus, it is not unreasonable to assume that what is now sand in our shallow seas and in the sandstone strata of our globe was once radiant energy in the form of light rays; and that the same general conditions of oceans, continents, islands, and sandy seacoast bottoms and beaches existed in former epochs when the now existing sandstone strata of our globe were being created.

Silica sands predominate in the shallow seas of the temperate zones, although considerable sections of ocean beaches consist mainly of broken and eroded sea shells.

Geological reports of the shallow seas and beaches of tropical islands and atolls show that the sands are mainly composed of granulated and pulverized materials derived from the mechanical and chemical disintegration of corals and sea shells, with very small amounts of silica sands.

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There has never been any doubt that coral and shell formations have developed in the shallow seas from the growths of corals and shellfish. This material, which grew as part of animal life, consists of calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium carbonate, and eventually becomes limestone and dolomite, respectively. Both are common rock strata of our earth.

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III -  The Creation Of The Oceans

FOUR AND A half billion years ago there were no earth strata and no waters of the earth. Now there are both. Their having been created is universally acknowledged, though the theories of creation have varied with time and place. It becomes perfectly reasonable to accept the new theory that the waters of the earth have been created, molecule by molecule, drop by drop, when we realize how other earth materials grow through photosynthesis from celestial radiant energy. The creation of water from radiant energy, transmitted and converted through vegetation and animals, and released by combustion, is in accordance with the laws of nature.

The sources from which the waters of the earth are created, are identified as (1) combustion of organic materials, (2) photosynthesis in vegetation, (3) chemical reactions in animals.


Combustion of Materials Creates Water

HAVING shown and verified that the land areas of the earth were created through photosynthesis and are growing in volume, we will now show with equally compelling evidence, that the waters of the earth are growing in volume and that they are being created in plants and animals; and that the water is mainly the product of the combustion of vegetation and animal materials.

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In his book Photosynthesis, Eugene I. Rabinowitch states on page 1,

"One trillion tons of organic carbon are produced each year."

(Carbon fixation was a name previously used for photo synthesis.)

"The best estimate for the rate of the total carbon dioxide reduction on earth is a turnover of 1011 tons of carbon per year; more than 9% of which is contributed by the flora of the oceans:’

(The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1959, Vo1.17, page 848).

Production and reduction are thus seen to be equal, 1011and one trillion being different notations for the same number!

Vegetation shows constant growth and it all eventually disappears by decay, or rotting, which is slow combustion. As much dies each year, on the average, as is replaced by new vegetable growth; thus, one trillion tons of vegetable growth may be considered as being burned up by oxidation each year. This figure is one factor in the approximate rate of growth of the oceans. The quantity of vegetation that is converted into coal and lignite or that becomes petrified as stone is not essential for the following calculation.

In all plant materials the average ratio of the main chemical elements is indicated by the formula C⁶H¹²O⁶ (see page 247, on minerals in vegetation). Approximately 7% of the weight of all vegetation is hydrogen, based on the atomic weights of the chemical elements. The combustion of each pound of hydrogen creates nine pounds of water vapor, as shown by the formula below. The vapor condenses as rain, and the waters flow through the rivers to the oceans.

Based on the above data we now have for consideration the yearly burning up of one trillion tons of vegetation, containing 7% hydrogen; 7% of one trillion tons is 70 billion tons, or (multiplied by 2,000) 140 trillion pounds of hydrogen; which, on combustion, creates nine times as much water, or 1,260 trillion pounds of water. Reduced to cubic feet, at 62.4 pounds of water per cubic feet, we have 20.2 trillion cubic feet of created water. There are 147’2 billion cubic feet in a cubic mile; we thus have 137 cubic miles of water created each year by the combustion of vegetation. To visualize this amount of water, consider Lake Erie, which contains approximately 109 cubic miles, and Lake Superior with 2,927 cubic miles of water.

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No less than 3,064,128,000 tons of water were created by the combustion of fossil fuels in the year 1958. It is roughly a of a cubic mile, and can be visualized as a lake with an average depth of twenty feet and covering 175 square miles. It is more water than is contained in the entire course of the Hudson River. This information is contained in a communication from the Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior; it is based on World wide Fuel Data 1958 and assumes the complete combustion of the fuels.

The equation representing the combustion of hydrogen:

2H² Plus O² = equals 2H²O plus 246,960 B.T.U.s (heat)
(4 lbs.) (32 lbs.) yields 36 Ib. of water vapor

The equation representing the combustion of carbon:

C Plus O² equals CO, plus 169,800 B.T.U.’s (heat)
(12 lbs.) (32 lbs.) yields 44 lbs. of carbon dioxide gas

(Based on a pound molecular weight of carbon, 12 lbs. C hydrogen, 2 lbs. H² oxygen, 32 lbs. Oz)
(From Ame